THE BOOK

Index for Full Disclosure: The Perils and Prospects of Transparency

A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | V | W | Z

A
Abercromby, David, 159
Abramoff, Jack, 179
accountability, 25–26, 139–40
accounting: accounting scandals of 2001 and 2002, 5, 137; international corporate finance reporting, 133–41; U.S. corporate financial accounting, 7, 9, 11–14, 29, 42–44, 51, 62–65, 68, 72, 82, 107–9, 120, 123–25, 180–81, 183–86, 221n21
action cycle, of transparency policy, xii, 6, 51–54, 129–30, 153–54, 225n6
adverse selection, 31–32, 41
advocacy groups, as intermediaries, 122
AIDS epidemic, 142. See also infectious disease reporting
Akerlof, George, 32
Alaska, and Megan’s Law, 243n60
Albertsons supermarkets, 167
Altshuler, Alan, 24
Amazon.com, 157, 164
American Hospital Association, 115, 171
American Medical Association, 115, 171
Andreessen, Marc, 237n9
architecture, of targeted transparency policies, 39–46
automobile fuel economy rating, 180
automobile rollover disclosure (SUV rollovers), 1–4, 14, 61, 162, 194–96 (appendix)

B
Ballasiotes, Ida, 229n12
banking industry, and mortgage lending disclosure, 5, 40, 42, 51, 62, 65, 68, 83–84, 113–14, 122–23, 203–5 (appendix), 251n188
Barcelona Convention for Protection of the Mediterranean, 233n2
Benson, Henry, 133
Berners-Lee, Tim, 237n9
Bhopal, India, chemical accident, 5
Boerner, David, 116
bounded rationality, 33, 55
Brandeis, Louis D., 6–7
Bridgestone/Firestone scandal, 1–4
Brown, Ann, 222n7
Buffett, Warren, 120
Bush (G. W.) administration: anti-terrorism measures, x, xi, 10, 27, 180; enforcement of transparency, 46; government secrecy, x, 27–28; limits on disclosure, 41, 180, 222n12; union financial reporting, 118
business: and information technology, 156–57; as target of targeted transparency policies, 41–42 (See also disclosers)
Business.gov, 158

C
California Health Care Foundation, 161
campaign finance disclosure, 26, 41–42, 45, 114, 179; summary of, 201–3 (appendix)
capture, political, 110–11
case studies, of targeted transparency, 10–14. See also individual entries
Chao, Elaine, 118
chemical industry, and Bhopal accident, 5
Chemical Manufacturers Association, 160
Cheney, Vice President Dick, 27
China, and SARS epidemic, 143–45, 151–52
choice, in targeted transparency policies, 48–49, 66–67, 175
citizens, i, x, xiii, 10, 14, 61, 116, 129, 143–44, 166–69
“club model” of legitimacy, 139
Coase, Ronald, 30
Coca Cola, Inc., 120
Code of Federal Regulations, 20
cognitive errors, role of, 33–34, 44–45, 55, 73–74
collaborative transparency, 15, 25, 151–69; changing roles of users and disclosers, 166–68; government as facilitator 162, 166, 168–69; in auto safety, 162; in environmental disclosure, 158–60;  in patient safety disclosure, 160–62; in school performance disclosure 163
“collective action” problem, 223n14
Commons, John R., 35–36
communication, as regulatory mechanism, 47–49
communication technology. See information technology
compatibility, of disclosed information with decision-making, 56–59, 67
competition, in international transparency policies, 150
competitive risks, as cost of disclosure, 119
comprehension, of disclosed information, 59–65, 178–79
computers, as facilitators of transparency, 14–15. See also information technology
Community Reinvestment Act, 68, 83, 177, 180.  See also mortgage lending disclosure
Connecticut, and Megan’s Law, 243n60
consumption, non-rival, 31, 123–24
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 233n2
corporate accounting scandals of 2001 and 2002, 5, 137
corporate financial disclosure, 7, 9, 11–14, 29, 42–44, 51, 62–65, 68, 72, 82, 107–9, 120, 123–25, 180–81, 221n21; international, 128, 132–41, 149–50, 208–11 (appendix); Sarbanes-Oxley, 107, 119, 184–85; summary of, 183–86 (appendix)
corruption, xi, 20, 117–18, 199–203
cost/benefit ratio, 43, 110; for disclosers, 109, 119–20, 178; for users, 120–21
crisis, and improvement of targeted transparency policies, 106–10
cross-border transparency policies. See international transparency policies

D
Daimler-Benz, 136
Dedman, Bill, 251n185
Degeorge, François, 44
deliberation, and legitimacy, 139–40
Dell, Inc., 156
De Marchi, S., 223n16
democracy, 5, 10, 118, 199–201
democratic deficit, in international transparency policies, 149
design standards, 47–48
“digital governance,” 238n19
disclosers, 41–42, 53, 175; anticipatory action, 29, 66, 86; and collaborative transparency, 166–68; and cost/benefit ratio, 109, 119–20, 178; and embeddedness, 65–68; goals of, 71–73; and lobbying, 170–71. See also action cycle
disclosure, 37–39; compulsory, 5–7, 72; politics of, 110–11, 170–73; voluntary, 38, 53–54; See also transparency; targeted transparency
drinking water safety, 8–9, 14; summary of, 192–93 (appendix)

E
Economist, 138
education. See school performance disclosure
effectiveness: collaborative transparency, 154, 165; international transparency policies, 132, 134–37, 141, 149–50; obstacles to, 71–74; principles for, 176–80; targeted transparency policies, 11, 50, 54, 90–91
effects, in targeted transparency policies, 50, 54
efficiency wage theory, 33
embeddedness: in collaborative transparency, 165; disclosers and, 65–68; in international transparency policies, 127, 134; users and, 54–65, 121
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (1986). See toxic pollution reporting
endowment effects, 44
enforcement mechanisms, 45–46, 138, 179, 224n22
Enron Inc., ix–x, xi, 40–41, 72, 127
entrepreneurs, role in collaborative transparency, 152–53
Envirofacts, 160
environmental protection, 29, 40–41, 158–60, 175–76. See also toxic pollution reporting
Environmental Protection Agency, 9. See also toxic pollution reporting
European Commission, 135–36
European Federation of Accountants, 138
European Union, 134–36, 140, 145–48, 180
Evans, Philip, 156–57
executive compensation disclosure, 120. See also corporate financial disclosure

F
Federal Election Campaign Act. See campaign finance disclosure
Federal Reserve Board, 240n8
Fidelity.com, 156
Fidler, David, 142, 144
Financial Accounting Foundation, 240n5
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), 108, 235n41, 240n5
“first mover” advantages, 119–20
Fluwikie.com, 161
food labeling: for allergens, 180; for genetically modified foods, 145–48, 212–15 (appendix); and nutritional labeling, 5, 9, 14, 41, 51–53, 65, 71–73, 84–85, 111, 113, 120, 180, 189 (appendix); for organic foods, 146
food safety, 128–29, 133. See also restaurant hygiene reporting
Ford Motor Company, 1
format, of disclosed information, 56–59
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 26–28, 39

G
gaming. See strategic response
Gardner, Gov. Booth, 116
genetically modified food labeling (GM), 145–48; 212–15 (appendix)
globalization, 131–32. See also international transparency policies
Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network, 142–43
Global Reporting Initiative, 232n1
Global Response Network, 143
global warming, 176. See also environmental protection
goal conflict, 71–73, 90
Gormley, W., 222n8, 225n6
government. See national governments; United States government
Greenspan, Alan, 120
Greenspun, Philip, 159

H
Hamilton, J. T., 223n16
Harvard University, Kennedy School of Government, Transparency Policy Project, xi–xii
Hazard Communication Standard. See workplace hazard disclosure
Herz, Robert, 137
home bias, 234n16
Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA). See mortgage lending disclosure
hybrid transparency, 154

I
infectious disease reporting, 128–29, 133, 141–45, 149–52, 180; summary of, 211–12 (appendix)
information: accuracy of, 46, 109–10; availability of, 56–59; comprehensibility of, 67–68; consumer demand for, 218n21; cost of, 56, 123–25; difficult to access, 118, 171–72; easy to use, 177; economics of, 30–34, 38; efficient sharing of, 165; false/distorted, 164–65; imperfect, 31–32; misinterpretation of, 73–74; partial/complicated, 7–9, 57, 59–65, 87, 125, 174; perceived value of, 175; “plain English,” 109; public access to, 24–25, 118, 125, 152–53, 181 (See also right-to-know laws); reliability of, 165; scope of, 42–43, 109–11; timing of, 89–90; and user embeddedness, 54–65; value of, 55–56
information asymmetry, 31–32, 40–41, 166
Information Network of Public Health Officials, 158
information overload, 171–72
information pooling, 238n11
information structure, 43–45
information technology, 119, 164–65, 177–78, 181–82, 219n25, 237n8, 238n11, 238n19; and collaborative transparency, 151–52, 154–58, 166–69; and international infectious disease reporting, 142–45
information use, 53; and information presentation, 44–45; and sustainability, 109–10
information users. See users
information vehicle, in targeted transparency policies, 43–45Institute of Medicine, 111, 114, 170, 179, 242n47
institutional investors, and international corporate financial disclosure, 136–37
interest groups, 28, 112–15, 122, 155, 186, 232n34
intermediaries: as agent for information users, 42, 61–62, 122–25; financial analysts as, 122–23; and international infectious disease reporting, 144; unions as, 89–90, 123–24
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), 136, 139–40, 254n221. See also under corporate financial disclosure
International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation (IASCF), 140, 234n28
International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC), 133, 135–36
International Federation of Accountants, 133, 140
International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee, 140
international governance, 127–29
international institutions, 128. See also names of institutions
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 137
International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), 140
international transparency policies, 127–50
Internet, 14–15, 125, 154–55, 165, 167, 237n9; and international infectious disease reporting, 142–45. See also information technology
investigative reporters, as intermediaries, 122–23

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J
Jin, G. Z., 245n90, 245n92
Johnson, Stephen L., 9
Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), 161

K
Kahneman, Daniel, 44
Kennedy, John F., 117
Kennedy, Robert, 117
Keohane, Robert, 139
KCBS-TV (Los Angeles), 193
KHOU-TV (Houston), 1
Kripke, Homer, 229n3

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L
labeling. See food labeling; nutritional labeling; prescription drug labeling; product labeling
Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act. See union finances disclosure
Lafley, A. G., 167
lead contamination, in drinking water, 8–9
legislation, federal: Administrative Procedure Act (1946), 25–26; Child Safety Protection Act (1994), 38; Civil Service Reform Act (1978), 249n149; Clean Air Act Amendment (1990), 48; Clean Air Act Amendments (1970), 49; Community Reinvestment Act, 68, 83, 177, 180; Corrupt Practices Act (1977), 240n8; Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965), 253n208; Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (1986), 241n34; Foreign Service Act (1980), 249n149; Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 26–28, 39; Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA) (1975), 62; Insecticide Act (1910), 29; Jacob Wetterling Crimes against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act, 243n57; Jobs for America Act (2004), 253n203; Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (1959), 117, 248n140, 248n144, 249n149; National Labor Relations Act, 247n138; No Child Left Behind Act (2001), 253n208; Occupational Safety and Health Act, 47–48; Paperwork Reduction Act, 249n150; Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 7, 28; Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) (2005), 4; Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002), 14, 119, 181; Securities and Exchange Acts (1933 and 1934), 7, 29, 221n21; Securities Investor Protection Act (1970), 240n7; Taft-Hartley Act (1947), 247n138; Transportation Recall Enhancement, Accountability, and Documentation (TREAD) Act (2000), 2–4; Williams Act (1968), 108
legislation, U.K., Companies Act (1844), 221n21
legitimacy, and international transparency policies, 127, 139–40, 144, 148
lemons problem, 32, 41
Leslie, P., 245n90, 245n92
Leuz, C., 235n46
Levi Strauss & Co., 156
Levitt, Arthur, 229n6, 240n10
liability laws, 38
Linden, L., 239n5
loopholes, 72
Los Angeles County, California, and restaurant hygiene reporting, 50–51, 59–61, 82–83, 179, 244n85, 244n87, 245n88, 245n89
loss aversion, 44–45
Lucent Technologies, 165

M
Madison, James, 24
Maine, and Megan’s Law, 227n28
Maleng, Norm, 116
market economy, and transparency, 30–34, 38
market incentives, 46–49, 175
market integration, and international transparency policies, 131–32
Marks, D. V., 226n6
Maryland, and workers compensation insurance, 36
Massachusetts: factory laws, 35; hospital rankings, 161
Medicare claims data, 89
medical mistakes, 114–15, 170–71. See also patient safety disclosure
Megan’s Laws, 42, 71–72, 227n28, 229n12, 230n20, 230n22, 239n5, 243n57; politics of, 115–17; summary of, 191–92 (appendix)
metrics, in targeted transparency policies, 43, 73–74, 88, 174, 178
Michigan, and mortgage lending disclosure, 122
Mill, John Stuart, 24
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, drinking water supply, 7–9
moral hazard, 32
mortgage lending disclosure, 40, 42, 51, 62, 65, 68, 113–14, 122–23, 251n188; as highly effective policy, 83–84; summary of, 203–5 (appendix)
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 24
multidisciplinary approach, 10–14
multinational companies, and international corporate financial disclosure, 134, 136

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N
National Academy of Sciences, 4
national capacities, and international corporate financial disclosure, 138
National Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 9
National Community Reinvestment Coalition, 227n22
national governments: and infectious disease reporting, 144; and information technology, 157–58; and international transparency policies, 134, 149–50. See also United States government
National Governors Association, 253n204
national interests, and international corporate financial disclosure, 138
national regulators, and international corporate financial disclosure, 135–36, 138
National Research Council, 148
Netflix, Inc., 157
“networked individualism,” 155
New Jersey, and mortgage lending disclosure, 122
Nike, Inc., 156
noncompliance: costs of, 45. See also enforcement mechanisms
nonprofit organizations, as target of transparency policies, 41
non-rival consumption, 31, 123–24
nutritional labeling, 41, 51–53, 65, 71–73, 111, 113, 120, 180; as moderately effective policy, 84–85; summary of, 189 (appendix)
Nutritional Labeling and Education Act. See nutritional labeling
Nye, Joseph, 139

O
occupational safety, 35–37; workplace hazard disclosure, 37, 40, 51, 59, 65, 86–87, 186–88 (appendix)
Olson, Mancur, 221n29
Ono, Masatoshi, 1
organic food labeling, 146
organizational report cards, 222n8, 225n6
O’Rourke, Dara, 168

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P
Paarlberg, Robert L., 236n65, 255n239
Paff, Ken, 231n26
participation, and legitimacy, 139–40
Patel, Jayendu, 44
patient safety disclosure, 5, 10, 40, 51, 65, 72, 88, 111, 114–15; and collaborative transparency, 160–62; as ineffective policy, 88–89, 170–71; New York state hospital reporting, 88–89, 171; Pennsylvania hospital reporting, 88–89, 171; summary of, 189–91 (appendix)
pathways, for regulatory systems: economic pathways, 47; political pathways, 47
Pease, Bill, 159
performance standards, 47–48
Pew Internet and American Life project, 155
“plain English” disclosure rules, 109
plant closing and mass layoff  disclosure, 41, 51, 65, 68, 252n195; as ineffective policy, 89–90; summary of, 205–6 (appendix)
policy problems, for targeted transparency policies, 173–76
political interest groups, as intermediaries, 122
political risks, as cost of disclosure, 119
politics of disclosure, 110–11, 170–73
prescription drug labeling, 180
presidential leadership, and government secrecy, 27–28
product labeling, 28–29
product recall, 1–2
Proxmire, William, 251n179
Public Citizen, 187
public education. See school performance disclosure
public health issues, 128–29, 160–62, 180; drinking water safety, 7–9, 14, 192–93 (appendix); hospital reporting, 5, 10, 40, 51, 65, 72, 88–89, 111, 114–15, 160–62, 170–71, 189–91 (appendix); infectious disease reporting, 128–29, 133, 141–45, 149–52, 180, 211–12 (appendix); nutritional labeling, 41, 51–53, 65, 71–73, 84–85, 111, 113, 120, 180, 189 (appendix); restaurant hygiene reporting, 44, 50–51, 59–62, 68, 82–83, 120, 179, 193–94 (appendix), 244n85, 244n87, 245n88, 245n89, 245n92, 245n95
public organizations, as target of transparency policies, 41
public school performance reporting, 5, 40, 72, 163; summary of, 207–8 (appendix)

R
rating systems. See automobile safety; restaurant hygiene reporting; terrorist threat ranking system
Reinicke, Wolfgang H., 130, 233n7
Research Directorate General (of EU), 148
responses, disclosers and, 66–68
response tracking, 177–78
restaurant hygiene reporting, 44, 50–51, 59–62, 68, 82–83, 120, 179, 244n85, 244n87, 245n88, 245n89, 245n92, 245n95; as highly effective policy, 82–83; summary of, 193–94 (appendix)
retailers, 167–68, 227n26
Rhode Island, and mortgage lending disclosure, 122
right-to-know laws, x–xi, 24–28, 39, 85, 169, 241n21
Rockoff, J., 239n5
rollover ratings. See automobile rollover disclosure
Roosevelt, President Franklin D., 7
RTKnet, 160

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S
Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU). See automobile rollover disclosure
sanctions, for targeted transparency policies, 179
San Francisco, and restaurant hygiene reporting, 245n95
Sarbanes-Oxley Act. See corporate financial disclosure
SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) epidemic, 128, 133, 143–45, 151, 180. See also infectious disease reporting
satisficing, 55
savings and loan failures, 251n183
Scorecard, 158–60
school performance disclosure, i, 12, 44, 125, 163, 207–8 (appendix), 248n46, 268n210
school report cards. See school performance disclosure
secrecy, in government, x, 26–28
Securities and Exchange Acts. See corporate financial disclosure
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 107–9, 120, 158
sex offender residence disclosure. See Megan’s Laws
Simon, Herbert, 33
Slaughter, Anne-Marie, 130, 139
spillover effects, 123–24
Standards Advisory Council, 140, 254n221
standards-based regulation, 35–37, 46–49, 175
Stiglitz, Joseph, 32–33
stock exchanges, and international corporate financial disclosure, 137
Stop & Shop supermarkets, 167
strategic response and gaming, 71–73, 90, 168–69
sunlight laws, 6–7
Sunstein, Cass, 34, 164
sustainability of transparency, 4, 11, 24, 106–26, 180–82; for collaborative transparency, 153–54; principles, 176–80
Sustainable Forestry Initiative, 232n1
SUV rollovers. See automobile rollover disclosure

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T
targeted transparency, xi–xii, 6, 20–24, 28, 37–39, 169; characteristics of, 6, 39–46; evolution of, 5–7, 25, 28–29; networks, 143; use of term, 39, 129
targeted transparency policies: and collaborative transparency, 154; common elements, 39–46; doubly embedded, 65; future of, 171–73; highly effective policies 77–84; ineffective policies, 77, 88–90; leveraging, 179–80; moderately effective policies, 77, 84–87; principles for, 176–80; recent regulatory examples, 21–23; vs. standards or market incentives, 46–49, 175–76; success or failure of, 51–54, 106, 109–10, 127–28; sustainability of, 106, 109–11. See also individual entries for policies
technology, role of, 173. See also information technology
Tennessee, and Megan’s Law, 230n22
terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, x, 164
terrorist threat ranking system, x, xi, 10, 61, 110, 180; summary of, 196–99 (appendix)
toxic pollution reporting, 29, 40–43, 46, 51, 62, 65, 72–73, 111, 120, 223n16, 224n22; emerging systems, 158–60; as moderately effective policy, 85–86; summary of, 188 (appendix)
Toxics Release Inventory. See toxic pollution reporting
transparency: failures of, x–xi, 170–76; gerrymandered, 172; to inform choice, 5–7; and market economy, 30–34, 38; as missed opportunity, 7–10; and power of information, 1–4; success of, 14–15. See also collaborative transparency; targeted transparency
Transparency International, 232n1
transparency measures, 38–39
transparency policies, international. See international transparency policies
transparency policies, second generation. See targeted transparency policies
transparency policies, third generation. See collaborative transparency
trust, public, 172, 219n26
Tversky, Amos, 44

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U
union finances disclosure, 41, 46, 117–18, 199–201 (appendix), 231n26, 248n140, 248n143, 248n144, 248n146, 249n150
unions, 124; as information intermediaries, 89–90, 123–24; and workplace hazard disclosure, 87
United Nations, 135–36
United States: and GM food labeling, 145–48; and international corporate financial disclosure, 134–36
United States Constitution, 25
United States government: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 161; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 253n202; Department of Health and Human Services, 161; Department of Labor, 46, 158; Environmental Protection Agency, 111, 158–59, 222n12, 242n38; Federal Election Commission (FEC), 125; Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 107; Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 146, 180; General Accounting Office, 27, 159; Justice Department, 27; Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 29, 36–37; Supreme Court, 25. See also legislation, federal
Usenet, 237n8
user-centeredness, 11
user coalitions, 112, 122, 136–37, 177. See also interest groups
user embeddedness, in targeted transparency policies, 54–65, 121
user goals, 71–73
user responses, disclosers and, 65–68
users, 53; and collaborative transparency, 154–56, 166–67; and cost/benefit ratio, 120–21; and embeddedness, 54–65, 121; as information source, 152–53, 155–56; and intermediaries, 124–25. See also action cycle

V
van Hulle, Karel, 136
Verrecchia, R. E., 235n46
“visible hand,” targeted transparency policy as, 73
Von Hippel, Eric, 156

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W
warnings, as form of transparency, 38–39
Washington state: and mortgage lending disclosure, 122; sex offender community notification law, 116–17, 224n21, 229n12, 243n62
watchdogs, 177, 179
water safety. See drinking water safety
Weber, Max, 24
Weimer, D., 222n8, 225n6
Wellman, Barry, 155
Wikipedia, 155, 164–65
wikis, 161
Wilson, James Q., 110, 112
Wolf, Martin, 130
Worker Adjustment and Retraining and Notification Act. See plant closing and mass layoff disclosure
workers compensation insurance, 36
workplace hazards disclosure, 37, 40, 51, 59, 65; as moderately effective policy, 86–87; summary of, 186–88 (appendix)
WorldCom, xi, 72, 127
World Health Assembly, 142, 144
World Health Organization (WHO), 142–45, 151
World Trade Organization (WTO), 148
World Wide Web, 237n9
Wurster, Thomas S., 156–57

Z
Zeckhauser, Richard, 44, 226n6

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